Over the past two decades, numerous achievements have been realized, including the development of new varieties, improved agronomic practices, livestock development, maintenance of the national herds and better food processing techniques. While Egypt has gained a much better understanding of soil and water systems in the developing world over the past few decades, too little of this new knowledge has been successfully applied to many fundamental management problems. A continuous effort to maintain a solid scientific base of applied science and a strong extension service is essential.

EGYPTIAN RESEARCH FOR AGRICULTURE TODAY

Egypt is an intensive user of modern technologies to improve agricultural productivity in an environment of scarce natural resources and population pressure. At the beginning of the 20th century, with this in mind, the Ministry of Agriculture (MALR) proceeded with the established technical divisions with research capabilities. These endeavors culminated in the creation of the Agricultural Research Center (ARC) in the early 1970s. (5)

Over the past two decades, numerous achievements have been realized, including the development of new varieties, improved agronomic practices, livestock development, maintenance of the national herds and better food processing techniques. New crops and animal breeds have been introduced and research has been dedicated to problem- solving, side by side with basic science. The overarching goal has been to maximize the economic return per unit of land and water. The Center has so far implemented four 5-year plans and initiated the fifth 5-year plan (2002-2007) in July 2002. Within the national agricultural development strategies, ARC assumes the following major functions:

• Conduct applied and basic research to generate a continuous flow of technologies that help increase productivity and reduce production cost;

• Transfer of new technologies to the farming community through extension service; and monitoring their adoption by the end users; and

• Human capital development as a continual process. According to its Founding Law, ARC is required to develop its infrastructure, set its priorities, train its research personnel and support staff and upgrade its physical capabilities, with a view to achieving greater sustainability. Over the past two decades, ARC research personnel have increased from 1720 researchers in 1982 to 4300 researchers in 2001. New Central Laboratories and Institutes have been added to improve performance in the on-going plan which is built on the following pivotal themes:

• Sustainable development of research and extension capabilities; • Upgrading technology transfer channels; and

• Utilize, to the maximum level possible, the findings of science and technology developed abroad.

The fifth 5-year plan incorporates 14 research programs, being implemented by 16 Institutes, 13 Central Labs, 10 regional stations, 36 specific research stations, 21 research administrations throughout Egypt and 4 research, extension and training centers of excellence. This effort is further supported by other partner agencies in MALR, Ministry of water resources and irrigation (MWRI), universities and sister research centers.

A multidisciplinary approach is the major feature of the current plan and key to its success. Clearer definition of research topics, geared to solving specific problems, is also another feature, complemented by the set objectives and the physical, human and financial resources earmarked to attain them.

The following topics are particularly appropriate in Egypt’s effort to increase food production and jobs for labor 197 through efficient management of natural resources, especially water and fertilizer; selection of appropriate crops and varieties; care and improvement of animal productivity and the adaptation of products for foreign and domestic markets. The discussions include reports and examples of systems that have been used in Egypt or in other parts of the world to advance productivity, improve varieties, healthier products, more efficient use of resources, increase trade and financial stability, develop international markets and utilize the most modern scientific systems. These examples are intended to provide information for comparison with local situations and interests. They are not intended as “the way things should be done in Egypt.”

Section 1—Soil and Water Research

One of the challenges the world faces in developing agricultural strategies that are truly sustainable is maintaining the resource base-- the soil and water that make agriculture possible. (16, 51, 107)

Population growth, intensified land use, environmental degradation, and agricultural productivity are interrelated issues. During the last 20 years, agricultural technology has been able to meet the needs of a vastly larger and generally more prosperous world population, but now there is concern that those initiatives have peaked and that the technologies in use focus mainly on the geographic sites with ample water and few soil constraints.

Meeting the world's increased needs and expectations continues to require concerted effort. Research is necessary on at least three fronts. First, techniques must be developed to intensify use of good quality lands while minimizing environmental degradation. Second, ways must be sought to enhance production on lands previously viewed as "marginal" or "ecologically fragile." Thirdly, new emphasis must focus on restoring degraded lands while expanding the effort to extend these technologies to the users.

The Extension of Knowledge

The US National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Soil and Water Research and Development) has concluded that while we have gained a much better understanding of soil and water systems in the developing world over the past few decades, too little of this new knowledge has been successfully applied to many fundamental management problems. There are substantial gaps in our basic understanding of the ecology of these systems and of the social complexity inherent in resource use.

The most compelling theme that emerged during their study was the need for better integration of soil and water research with other elements relevant to natural resource management. Soil and water practices are not independent endeavors, but rather must be an integral part of a larger landscape management. Our understanding of the basic principles of soil and water processes is fairly good, but our ability to apply this knowledge to solve problems in complex local and cultural settings is weak. The single issue research approaches of the past brought great benefits, but the problems we face are changing and demand a more holistic vision.

Two key indicators of deterioration in agricultural systems are declines in the quality of the soil and of the water. Poor management of either of these resources quickly leads to decreases in farm productivity. Most developing countries occupy tropical zones ranging from seasonally arid to humid tropical environments. Agriculture in tropical environments faces different constraints than in temperate regions, and this affects soil and water research needs. Areas Needing Research Given the problems faced by tropical agriculture, the unique characteristics of the environments and cultures, and the strengths and weaknesses of the existing data base, research in the following six areas could offer great rewards in support of sustainable agriculture and natural resource management:

• Overcoming institutional constraints on resource conservation;

• Enhancing soil biological processes;

• Managing soil properties;

• Improving water resource management;

• Matching crops to environments; and

• Effectively incorporating social and cultural dimensions into research.

To further these goals, the wealth of time-tested indigenous knowledge that exists needs to be tapped. Special potential lies in the blending of traditional and modern knowledge. One of the most intractable problems yet to be faced is the difficulty of communicating new ideas to the farmer and establishing two-way communication between farmers and researchers. After all the farmer knows what his/her problems are, but needs the scientists to help solve them and then in turn teach him to use the new techniques. Without this cycle, little progress can be made. Research and development organizations have struggled with this problem for many years, and it remains a high priority issue.

An Integrated Research Strategy

A collaborative, integrated research strategy requires institutional mechanisms and structures that effectively link research efforts and organizations with clients, and that enhance the interactions among the different components of research. Mechanisms are needed to reassess research 200 priorities periodically and to generate local data about soil and water resources.

A basic issue in any attempt to target research to the needs of users is the pattern of communication and feedback among the different people involved. The chains of communication can be complex. Traditionally, crop research went through a hierarchical sequence from basic research to field testing to extension-agent promotion. But this structure has not always worked in developing countries. Special efforts are required to encourage networks, "intermediate change agents" (e.g., private voluntary organizations), and other mechanisms to link researchers and research organizations with universities in host countries, private voluntary organizations, village organizations, and farmers in interactive exchanges. Participation from the ultimate recipients of research, the farmers, is needed throughout the process of planning and conducting research. For this concept to work it is essential that the educational gap between the "agent" and the farmer be minimized. The farmer or end user of the new information must have enough education to comprehend the process being introduced.

Conclusions From the United States

The following are some common themes crystallized during the deliberations of the National Research Council of the United States:

• Major gaps still exist in our understanding of soil and water systems and processes, but more important are the gaps between what is known and what is applied.

• Indigenous knowledge should always be assessed. It often can suggest promising research on ecosystem components and strategies, such as nitrogen fixing trees, nutrient accumulating species, and low input irrigation techniques. In some cases, it can provide a platform for the integration of traditional and new technologies.

• More effective links between the social and the natural science aspects of soil and water problems are needed. Social and economic contexts create constraints that can effectively limit the application of technical improvements unless such contexts are adequately understood and addressed. • More effective ways to use research resources for long-term, practical ends are needed. How can better feedback and communication be established between the field and the research institution so research can be focused on real, practical problems?

• The weakest link in the research process is the dissemination of research findings to the farm or regional levels, with the great physical and human diversity that occurs. Greater effort is needed to develop better ways to communicate results.

Soil and water resources provide the foundation upon which agriculture is based. But successful agricultural production systems require a combination of biological and societal resources. This is a complex and dynamic mix of variables. In view of the evolutionary nature of agricultural systems, it is important that the setting of research priorities be an ongoing process. Research priorities must be reassessed and adjusted periodically to serve the problems at hand. A mechanism is needed for evaluating and reiterating priorities to keep them fresh, flexible, and responsive to current needs.

An effective effort to build sustainability into our agricultural systems will require changes in the philosophy and operating procedures of development organizations. Program planners and implementers will need to be more responsive to the evolution of individual agricultural systems and to the broader aspirations, needs, and capabilities of the user populations.

The search for ways to achieve sustainable agriculture and natural resource management will require changes in our traditional approach to problem solving. Researchers must cross the boundaries of their individual disciplines; they must broaden their perspective to see the merits of indigenous knowledge; and they must look to the farmer for help in defining a practical context for research. This change in vision is under way in various degrees throughout the research community, but the pace of change is slow. (143)

Current Soil and Water Research in Egypt

The Soil, Water and Environment Research Institute in Egypt is an important center focused on carrying out the research needed for the critical areas of soil and water management. The following list of their activities describes their present day directions:

• Producing soil classification maps including soil productivity.

• Using remote sensing techniques in estimating urbanization and sand encroachment on cultivated soils, sea shore erosion and yearly census of cultivated crops.

• Irrigation water management through laser leveling, long furrows and gated pipes. Evaluation of the reuse of marginal water in agriculture. • Environmental impact assessment of some agricultural projects. • Evaluation of the use of slow release fertilizers as well as rock phosphate in agriculture.

• Recycling of agricultural residues to produce organic fertilizers.

• Producing bio-fertilizers for crops, bio-pesticides to control nematodes as well as bio –soil conditioners for the newly reclaimed soils.

It appears that the priorities in this area of emphasis are appropriate and in accord with the suggestions of the academy. However the lack of any emphasis on extension of the resulting information continues to be the major problem for Egypt and the region associated with the use of the Nile waters. Links with the farmers to better understand how they are managing their soil and water and to acquaint them with alternative and improved methods is essential. Also we know there are serious water pollution problems faced by agriculture in the Delta that need work.

Section 2—Cotton Research

Historical Background of the Cotton Research Institute

The Cotton Research Institute (CRI) is one of the oldest agricultural research institutions in Egypt and one of the pioneering cotton institutions in the world. Its roots are traced back to a small research station in Giza, founded in the first decade of the twentieth century. The year 1920 marked the beginning of serious coordinated research on the cotton crop under the umbrella organization known as the Cotton Research Board (CRB). Early research focused on the botany and genetics of Egyptian cotton, followed later by the selection of promising varieties. The spinning mill was built in 1935, and was separately responsible to the Ministry of Agriculture, but its day-to-day work was conducted in a close liaison with the cotton breeders. The spinning mill provided the breeder with the measurements and interpretation of fiber and yarn properties needed for the breeding program. Later on, the various sections dealing exclusively with cotton were reorganized into two separate sections. The Production Section included breeding, regional evaluation, variety maintenance, cultural practices, and physiology. The Technology Section included fiber, spinning, grading and ginning. In 1971, the ARC was established to encompass research activities of 204 the MOA, and the Production and Technology sections were joined into what is now known as the Cotton Research Institute.

The Cotton Research Institute Today (37)

CRI consists of a research staff of 157, plus a strong support staff. It is composed of two research branches, Cotton Production and Cotton Technology, and one directorate, Foundation Seed, which supervises the production of foundation seed lots. The research goals of the CRI are the following:

• Breed new varieties of high yield and quality Egyptian cotton to satisfy the requirements of local and foreign Spinners .

• Create new pest resistant varieties of cotton that have a higher tolerance to soil stresses and a shorter growing season.

• Maintain the purity of commercially grown varieties.

• Identify optimal varieties, with regard to yield and quality, for each growing location. • Determine the best agricultural practices to optimize inherent yield potential.

• Improve quality assessment methods and annually evaluate the spinning properties of the commercial yield.

• Define the quality parameters of lint cotton grades for the benefit of cotton marketing. Refine cotton ginning techniques.

As we will see in more detail in chapter 10, cotton research has for over 20 years only maintained yields. Yields have not surpassed the levels of the early 1980s. The rest of the world has experienced steady increase in cotton yields. To catch up with the current Israeli level of cotton production is not possible with a business-as-usual approach to cotton research. Considerably greater focus and expenditure are needed. The present research system has been effective in 205 maintaining yields in the face of the usual forces tending to reduce them. It must now focus additionally on what is needed for rapid yield increase.

"Reclaiming the cotton throne To rule as king once again, the Egyptian cotton industry is in dire need of an overhaul” reports Mona El-Fiqi, Cotton production Issues Today -- Al Ahram

“Egypt's "white gold" continues to face several challenges which have led to an obvious deterioration in its status on the international market. Experts believe that unless the government takes serious steps to recover the reputation of its cotton crop by increasing production, introducing new cotton varieties, reducing costs and implementing a clear pricing policy, this bullion will lose its allure.

The most pressing problem facing Egypt's cotton crop is dwindling land areas on which it is grown. According to Minister of Agriculture and Land Reclamation Amin Abaza, there are 450,000 feddans available for cultivating cotton -- a far cry from the two million feddans of cotton harvested in the 1950s. The reason behind the decrease in land area is that farmers are no longer interested in the crop because of inconsistent pricing policies.

Cotton prices fluctuate according to international value, and since the government does not provide farmers with financial insurance for their crop they turn to more reliable crops such as rice, vegetables and fruits. Since 1994, when domestic cotton trade was liberalized, the government is no longer responsible for marketing cotton, leaving farmers without any financial insurance on their harvest. Moreover, farmers cannot face the challenges of international markets and the sudden changes in prices.

The solution, according to experts, is a more effective role by the government in marketing cotton. "The Ministry of Agriculture should set an average price for cotton and announce it at the beginning of each season," suggested Hussein Mohamed Hegazy, chairman of the Shura Council's Agricultural Production and Lands Reclamation Committee. "This will help farmers feel secure and encourage them to grow cotton."

Another challenge is delayed payments to cotton growers, sometimes for months at a time. "Farmers in Beheira did not get paid for last year's cotton crop until July 2007, while the new harvest will be collected in October," revealed Hussein. "Understandably, a large number of farmers stopped growing cotton."

What compounds the problem is that most local spinning and weaving companies do not use Egyptian extra-long cotton, but prefer to import cheaper short-staple cotton. Hegazy asserted that it would be better if local manufacturers upgraded to the extra-long varieties, rather than concentrating on producing cheap garments. "Growing long-staple cotton but not using it in local factories weakens our position on the international market," warned Hegazy.

To promote the cotton harvest, Hegazy suggested that the government double the land allocated for cotton, part of which will be earmarked for growing the short-staple cotton needed in local production. The yield of the longer staple variety will target foreign markets since it is in high demand there.

Hegazy stressed the need to use advanced technology and genetic engineering to develop more productive varieties. Six countries, namely the US, Russia, China, Pakistan, Brazil and India, were able to increase their cotton production to reach 78 per cent of total world production by using advanced technology.

Another setback cited by Hegazy is that fertilizers, seeds and harvesting costs are too high, which put final prices above the international market value causing Egyptian cotton to lose its competitiveness. He urged that the government provide farmers with production needs at reasonable prices, as is the case in many other countries. Also, that the results of research on agriculture should be applied rather than shelved. "Although government research centers do a good job on cotton crops, farmers have not been informed of any of the results in order to benefit from them," stated Hegazy.

While agreeing that there are many serious problems facing the Egyptian cotton industry, cotton dealers put in a few of their own suggestions. Amgad Hassan El-Atal, chairman of Egycot and head of the Exporters Committee at the Alexandria Businessmen's Association, believes that the most important problem is the government's sudden decision a few months ago to stop growing a long-strain variety of cotton, known as Giza 70, which is highly demanded by international markets.

El-Atal blamed the government for taking a sudden decision without informing cotton dealers beforehand, or providing other varieties before the moratorium on Giza 70. The Ministry of Agriculture had said the decision was a result of a poor harvest of Giza 70 due to mixing different cotton seeds. But El-Atal called on the government to introduce other longer varieties such as Giza 70, and find solutions to save other cotton staples such as Giza 88. "The ministry has to study well the reasons behind the decline of Giza 70 to save other cotton varieties," he urged.

One more problem, according to El-Atal, is the lack of set cotton pricing. He suggested that the government announces an estimated, non- obligatory price for all those in the industry, including farmers, traders, spinning companies and exporters. At the same time, this expert opposes subsidies or any other form of government support to public sector spinning and weaving companies. El-Atal explained that these companies will rely on subsidies and buy up large amounts of cotton in order to control prices.

In response to the cotton debate, officials promised that a number of procedures will be taken to help Egyptian cotton back on the right track. Abaza, for example, announced that his ministry is currently conducting a study to reduce the cost price of cotton by using high technology, particularly in collecting the cotton harvest. Abaza added that a number of new factories using long- staple varieties were recently established in the city of Borg Al-Arab. As a result, it is expected that there will be an increase in demand on Egyptian cotton and a rise in the area of land dedicated to growing the crop.

Also, the Ministry of Agriculture recently announced that it is considering to provide cotton farmers with production needs -- such as seeds and fertilisers -- at reasonable prices, depending on the number of feddans each farmer grows. This would encourage farmers to grow cotton, while at the same time lets market prices be decided according to supply and demand.”
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Future of Biotechnology in Cotton Production (112)

Since the first report on cotton biotechnology in 2000, the adoption of biotech cotton has been rapid. According to the International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC), 21% of the world cotton area in nine countries was planted to biotech cotton varieties in 2003/04 representing over 30% of world production. The technology itself is also evolving with many new developments and possibilities for the future.

This second report aims to provide a balanced treatment of the issues associated with biotech cotton by updating the first report and specifically addressing biosafety issues surrounding biotech cotton, and the potential benefits and challenges for biotech cotton adoption in the developing world. For the purposes of this report the Expert Panel decided to use the generic term “biotech cotton” to describe varieties previously described as GM, GMO, or genetically engineered (GE), because the majority of the panel believes that the application of modern biotechnology tools is resulting in an expanding number of products best described by the term “biotech cotton”.

Global Status of Biotech Cotton and Future Prospects

Adoption of biotech cotton varieties has been rapid with the total global area of biotech cotton reaching 7.3 million hectares in 2003, grown in nine countries and representing 21% of cotton planted globally. More than 85% of the 7 million farmers utilizing biotech crops in 2003 were resource-poor farmers planting Bt cotton, mainly in China (Mainland), India and the Makhathini Flats region of South Africa.

Since its introduction in 1996, cotton has been one of the lead crops to be genetically engineered and biotech cotton has been one of the most rapidly adopted technologies ever. The current varieties of commercial importance address crop management or agronomic traits that assist with pest management (Bt) (Bacillus thurengensis) or herbicide tolerance (HT). Nine countries representing 59% of world cotton area allow biotech cotton to be grown: Argentina, Australia, China (Mainland), Colombia, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa, and United States.

Varieties with multiple traits (Bt and herbicide tolerance) are now available. The first varieties with two independently acting Bt genes (pyramided or stacked genes) were introduced in the US and Australia in 2003. These two-gene Bt varieties provide better efficacy and much greater resilience against the risk of resistance evolution.

Independent assessments indicate that millions of farmers in China, South Africa and India have derived substantial economic, environmental, health and social benefits from biotech cotton. That such benefits can be realized elsewhere seems highly likely, but the decision to grow biotech cotton requires an initial careful analysis of the local need for biotech solutions, followed by deployment strategies that ensure farmers have the information and educational support to maximize their benefits from the technology

Traits Available in Biotech Cottons

While insect resistance and herbicide tolerance are the only traits currently available in biotech cottons, a broad range of other traits are under development using modern biotechnology. These may impact agronomic performance, stress tolerance, fiber quality and yield potential directly.

Apart from insect resistance and herbicide tolerance, biotechnology is being applied to issues of disease and nematode resistance or tolerance to various environmental stresses (heat, cold, and drought), all of which could improve realized yield. Biotechnology is providing a means for modifying the lipid profile of cottonseed oil to improve it nutritionally (e.g., high-oleic) and provide the functional properties for various food and industrial applications and to remove gossypol from cottonseed to enhance the feed value of meal.

Finally biotechnology is being used to modify cotton fiber quality by targeting specific traits such as fiber length, micronaire, color, and strength. While numerous possibilities can be imagined, and despite some advances in this area, the biology of cotton fibers imposes a strict reality. Because the cotton fiber is a single cell, it has been difficult to obtain accumulation of high levels of functional substances in the fiber. Also, cotton’s crystalline cellulose structure most likely affects many quality parameters that give cotton its desirable traits as a textile fiber, so disruption of the structure could complicate its quality.

Risk Assessment For Biotech

As with any new technology biotech cotton brings both potential benefits and risks. We can never know everything about a technology, nor definitively predict long-term consequences. Defining an appropriate, science-based, risk assessment framework that addresses realistic and assessable risks to human health and the environment and 211 balancing these against potential benefits is the key requirement for the adoption of biotech cotton.

Many of the concerns raised about biotechnology relate to ethical issues, which question the right of man to tamper with the genetic makeup of other organisms, the right of companies to patent genes or various forms of life, or the potential dominance of multinational companies over small, developing economies. We argue that these issues are not resolvable through recourse to science, hence we do not address them further.

Possible ecological risks

Possible ecological risks requiring pre-adoption assessment are: • Potential for gene flow and consequences on biodiversity and weediness

• Impacts on non-target species

• Resistance risk and its management

The potential for gene flow through pollen movement is an insignificant risk in the case of related species that are genetically incompatible with cultivated cotton (non- Gossypium Malvaceae and diploid Gossypium species). Where cultivated biotech varieties could co-occur with sexually compatible species (conventional varieties, wild or feral tetraploid species), the potential for pollen transfer is rare event, and specific measures could be implemented to further minimize the possibility of gene flow. Cultivated (and wild) cotton genotypes lack weedy characteristics. Cotton is a self-pollinating plant, with heavy sticky pollen that is not wind dispersed. Natural out crossing can only be mediated by certain insects. For gene flow to occur via normal sexual transmission, certain conditions must exist: the two parents must be geographically associated, their flowering periods must coincide, a suitable pollen vector must be present and active since cotton pollen is not wind dispersed, and the resulting progeny must be fertile and ecologically fit for the local environment. All the essential conditions are rarely present at the same time, so gene flow from cultivated cotton, whether biotech or not, to uncultivated genotypes is a rare event.

Non target species such as beneficial insects are not effected by the presence of Bt in the cotton and of course are more effective in controlling other pests. It is well known that most pesticides applied are just as fatal to beneficial insects as they are to the Bt target pests.

The evolution of resistance in the target insect pest or weed complex is the major challenge to the sustainable use of biotech cottons. For both herbicide tolerant cottons and Bt cotton some level of pre-emptive resistance management will be required, although the details will vary with local situation. Resistance management strategies will require a sound ecological understanding of the farming system and pest complex to allow the development of a pragmatic, yet scientifically valid strategy which can be implemented locally.

Strategies for the pre-emptive management of Bt cotton have been exhaustively explored with population genetic models and innovative methods to modify the selection environment imposed by Bt cotton on the pest. Resistance is not an inevitable consequence of the use of Bt cottons, but susceptibility to Bt proteins should be viewed as a valuable natural resource to be managed as carefully as the soil and water upon which cotton production depend directly.

Magic Bullet or Valuable Component

Biotech cotton varieties should not be perceived as “magic bullets” for pest control in cotton, but be recognized as a valuable component of integrated pest management (IPM) systems which can reduce the impact of key pests and address significant environmental concerns.

In seeking to establish policy on the introduction of biotech cotton varieties, all governments should take account of the potential for integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated weed management (IWM) systems to reduce insecticide and herbicide reliance and assess the need for biotech cotton as a component of such systems, not as an alternative. While Bt cottons clearly provide an opportunity to address significant environmental concerns about cotton production, their real value is as a foundation to build IPM systems which incorporate a broad range of biological and cultural tactics.

The Real Benefits

Farmer’s benefits accrue through reductions in pesticide use, equal or higher yields, no impact on fiber quality and increased income, while clear environmental benefits are delivered through reduced pesticide input.

Published literature from all countries growing biotech cottons indicates significant economic, environmental and social benefits. Biotech cottons, compared to their conventional counterparts, consistently have lower pesticide use and higher average profit in both large-scale and small-holder systems. Yields are usually higher and fiber quality is not affected. Indirect significant benefits of the technology include improved populations of beneficial insects and wildlife in cotton fields, reduced pesticides runoff, and improved farm worker and neighbor safety as well as soil-related environmental improvements through changed tillage practices with HT varieties. Perhaps most importantly the growing body of socio-economic analyses supports the view that Bt cotton at least can bring increased income levels to resource-poor farmers with significant flow-on gains for communities.

Human Health Benefits

Perhaps the most striking documented impacts to flow from biotech cotton is the human health benefits now widely identified in China and South Africa. These benefits flow directly from the reduced pesticide use required in Bt cotton varieties. Similar and perhaps larger benefits could be expected in other developing countries where resourcepoor small-holders are required to apply pesticides by hand using minimal or no protection and poor equipment. Moreover the improvements in cash flow and reductions in time demand for manual spraying of crops opens up considerable opportunities for flow-on community benefits.

However, concerns remain about the influence of multinational companies with regard to the deployment of biotech crops in developing countries. As we stress in our conclusions, all countries should to be free to make their own decisions about adoption of biotech cotton or other products of modern biotechnology unconstrained by philosophical, ideological or economic pressures from outside.

It is imperative that small-holders are provided with options to adopt Bt or HT traits alone or in combination as the needs of their local situation demand, and with the educational support required to maximize value and environmental benefits.

Sustained access to biotech cotton varieties requires a combination of political will and commitment to provide the components of:

• a rigorous, transparent and effective regulatory process;

• a professional seed supply industry;

• farmer education and support structures;

• Intellectual property rights and a conducive business environment. The most significant requirement for biotech crops is that they must satisfy a clear agronomic, environmental or social need and can bring demonstrable benefit to local farmers. So the trait(s) must be tailored to local needs, not imposed from other systems. Potential benefits from biotech traits can only be realized when they are expressed in well adapted and thoroughly tested varieties suitable for a given region. Full recognition and value should be placed on locally developed and adapted germplasm during any implementation of biotech cottons. The ongoing importance of conventional breeding efforts through public or private institutions should not be lost in an era of biotechnological advances.

Section 3—Crop Production is Basic—FAO (4,7,81)

The Food Problem

The demand for food in developing countries is enormous. The global demand for cereal grains over a 25-year period shows that the industrialized countries account for roughly 15% of this demand while developing countries account for 85%. (Sirageldin. 144). The same is true for meat products. When it comes to roots and tubers, the demand in the most industrialized countries will account for less than 3% of production while 85 to 95% will be used in the developing countries. And as new, urban lifestyles lead greater numbers of people to consume more fats and less fiber, more fast food and fewer home-cooked meals, developing countries face a double challenge – widespread hunger on the one hand and rapid increases in obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and other diet-related diseases on the other.

While this points to the ongoing importance of international trade in food, it also points to the need for a transformation in the efficiency of agriculture in developing countries if these food requirements are to be met. It is argued that increasing yields, and not increasing the cultivated areas, is the only viable option to meet the increasing demand for food at less dollar expense and less damage to and better protection of biodiversity and endangered ecosystems. Sirageldin (2004) reported that three options are available today to increase yields:

• high input agriculture,

• organic/peasant farming, and

• sustainable precision farming that combines the best science with best management practices.

High input agriculture is what we know in industria1ized countries. Largely a phenomenon of the past 50 years or so, it relies heavily on chemical and energy inputs. It is often associated with large, highly capitalized production units. It is not a model easily applied to the smallholder farms of developing countries. The increasing reliance on chemical inputs has led many in the industrialized world to promote organic fanning as a substitute. Perhaps the long-term solution will be precision farming coupled with the best of science for the needs of the poor. Sustainable precision farming is the promise; adapting and applying the best of science to small holder farms will be required if we are to meet present and future food needs of the least developed countries. The question of whether it is possible to combine the best science and the best management for crop production by the smallholder farmer is gaining stronger support with time. In developing countries, the problems are compounded by poor infrastructure for transporting food to urban centers. Long distances, bad roads, and urban crowding cause spoilage of 10 to 30 percent of produce in transit.

Clearly the value of a certain crop no longer depends on the suitability of the climate, but it depends on several other factors including, and most important, the human capacity to produce and deal 'with the crop in the fields and after harvest. The production of high value crops by the small farmer in the WANA (Western Asia and Northern Africa) region seems to be an option that could form the background and the potentials of increasing the income of small production units to help eliminate poverty and improve human livelihood.

In all the efforts aiming at environmental development, poverty elevation, and establishing food security strategies especially in developing countries, small holders are key players. Agricultural activities utilize natural resources such as soil and water more than any other activity. As agriculture is considered to be the main tool to supply food for humans, an increased pressure on the natural resources have been observed. With an increasing population in cultivated areas, the per capita land share decreases. Small holders are becoming more numerous in developing countries, reaching thresholds under profitability levels.

The major management and developmental problems related to small holders are soil erosion, water use efficiency and water withdrawals that deplete the aquifers in a non reversible and unsustainable manner. Such a situation affects not only the existing population, but also reduces the natural resources availability for future generations. The end result is a consistent trend that the poor are getting poorer.

The Role of Horticulture

Horticulture is unique in that it can directly address poverty and food security issues in both urban and rural areas of the developing world. Gender represents another field for inequity and inequality since in much of the developing world it is women who carry the burden for both agriculture and nurturing the family. It is important to recognize the failures of policymakers and to promote greater investment in education and health and in rural infrastructure that benefits rural communities. The production systems in WANA region should be modified to achieve sustainability and to increase the income of the local farmers to sustain a decent standard of living. Achieving food security in the developing world will require the transformation of these economies and a doubling of the trade exports from the North to the South. This means reaching small holder farmers in the developing world and transforming their agricultural production. In many cases this means dealing with very difficult, low potential environments where it is not easy to see how such transformations can be accomplished. Beside the direct impact of the lack of food security that is expressed in the thousands of lives lost every day, there is a less obvious and even worse effect of hunger, which is malnutrition and element deficiency such as iron, iodide, and vitamins in food that result in reducing the production ability and mental power capability.

Horticulture is a vehicle to intensify land productivity and hence obtain more crops. Due to the fact that the market price of horticultural commodities is relatively higher compared with other crops, the income generated from the unite area of lands is also higher. The land ownership and the share of agricultural lands per capita are lower in WANA than in most of the countries with transition economy compared to the developed countries. Such a situation results in limited source of income families, and together with the high population intensity, poverty prevails. The dependence on low- cash generating commodities for agriculture cannot generate enough income for rural inhabitants. Horticultural crops can be a salvation for such a situation. Another point here is related to the dependence on cereals as the main, and probably the sole constituent of diet. Malnutrition is expected due to the lack of vitamins and other food supplements. Horticultural crops provide the necessary supplements to assure a balanced diet for a healthy population. Horticulture also offers potentials for small value-adding activities that could help in generating income for rural areas and create opportunities.

Horticultural as a tool to maximize land and water resource use efficiency:

Horticultural crop production systems can also improve productivity and water use efficiency. Once water is collected or harvested, there is no point in using it for supplementary irrigation for a lower value crops. It is advised to utilize the water in the most intensive cultivation systems using high value crops to produce enough cash to sustain good living. In the case of arid environments, the best utilization of soil and water resources is a must. Information related to on farm water use is available in a wide range of publications. It is quite difficult to sum it in few lines. Nevertheless, it is important to stress upon the different patterns of agricultural activities and their relative differences in water use efficiency.

Irrigation systems vary in their water use efficiency. The amount of water required for an irrigation may be approximated by sampling the soil at several places in the field and estimating the moisture deficit. The water application is then calculated on this basis allowing for the possible losses. The irrigation efficiency for sprinkler irrigation could vary from 60 to 70%, improving to about 80% for localized irrigation, ranging between 45 and 75% in basin irrigation, and between 40 to 65 in furrow irrigation. The fact is that most of the horticultural crops in Egypt are now either grown in new lands where modern irrigation systems are used, or that the growers are turning to such systems to control salinity and water logging problems in old lands.

Protected cultivations:

The use of greenhouse and plastic house techniques had contributed substantially for the improvement of water use efficiency. The plastic or glass cover creates a special microclimate (Abou Hadid and El Beltagy, 1991) in which radiation and wind movement are lower than in the open 220 field, while relative humidity is higher than in the open field. These factors favor a reduction in evapotranspiration (Eissa et al 1991). On the other hand, the higher temperature results in increased plant growth rate and results in more yield per unit area of the cultivated lands. The increase in yield and reduction in water consumption under protected cultivation was reported by Abou Hadid et al (1992). The end result of this situation is larger yields under protected cultivation using less amounts of water which improve the water use efficiency as reported by Abou Hadid and El Beltagy (1992). The efficient use of water in greenhouses is also reflected on the efficient use of fertilizers. Many reports on this subject (Ismail et al, 1996; El Behairy et al, 1996; Abd Elmoniem et al, 1996) indicated that protected cultivation and soil less culture techniques help improve nutritional conditions in plastic houses and solve nutritional problems that could not easily be solved under open field conditions.

Soil less culture:

A remarkable example of the efficient use of water resources is the use of substrates in soil less culture for better vegetable quality and as a means for improving the water use efficiency. To clarify the relation between substrate culture and water use efficiency, it may be noticed that the field grown tomato produce 3 kg of tomato fruits per cubic meter of water, in plastic houses soil grown tomato produce 17 kg per cubic meter of water. Tomatos grown in substrate under plastic house conditions in Egypt produced 45 kg of tomato fruits per cubic meter of water.

Soil less culture techniques were developed under glass houses in order to overcome major agricultural problems such as nutrition, plant diseases and environmental pollution. It was found later on to be one of the most efficient tools for water saving. The development of a simple low cost system for hydroponics was the main challenge to make soil less culture possible. Several attempts to design and implement the different techniques of soil less culture were followed and were proved to be economically viable and environmentally safe. The utilization of such techniques resulted in improving water use efficiency to a great extent and helped to reduce the amount of chemicals used for both nutrition and for pest and disease control. The cost of production is relatively high but future research may be promising to reduce the cost and hence improve the applicability of these systems on a large scale in arid lands.

Limited water resources and rapid increase in population were the major factors that drew attention towards the use of intensive agriculture in Egypt. Protected cultivation was the first step, which started initially in the late seventies and intensified in the mid eighties. Maximizing crop yield per square meter of soil as well as per cubic meter of water could be achieved through the use of hydroponics systems. (Zayed et al. 1989).

Several possibilities and options of soil less culture are available in Egypt. Nutrient film technique (NFT) and rock wool are the most developed systems. Even though it was found that rock wool should be replaced every other year, which means another additional cost compared to the nutrient film technique (NFT).

Several efforts have been made to introduce the nutrient film technique (NFT) in Egypt which started initially in the tourist villages where the soil could not be cultivated successfully. Never the less, there is still be a good opportunity to increase water use efficiency by using other systems like the aeroponic systems (El Shinawy et aI, 1996).

Global Horticultural Assessment vs Horticulture Research Institute Priorities

In the most recent publication of the Global Horticultural Assessment (GHA) as reported by USAID (2005), the major research priorities that were recommended in the publication on the global scale were related to market systems, post harvest systems and food safety, genetic resource conservation and development, sustainable production systems and natural resources management, capacity building enabling environment, gender equity, and nutrition and human health. The priorities of the Horticulture Research Institute (HRI) are listed next to compare with the GHA recommendations. The GHA list was deficient in at least one item – extension and education. The Institute was deficient in activities related to market systems, gender equity and nutrition and health.

Global Horticultural Assessment Priorities Market systems

• Increase access to market information

• Strengthen producer and marketing organizations

• Impact of changing market systems

• Investment in marketing infrastructure Post harvest systems and food safety

• Develop and disseminate appropriate post harvest technologies for small medium and large producers

• Enhancement of value-added processing techniques and opportunities

• Development and extension of food safety protocols and quality standards for horticultural commodities

Genetic resource conservation and development

• Development of high quality seed and planting stock programs

• Exploration, collection, conservation and utilization of indigenous genetic germplasm and knowledge systems

Sustainable production systems and natural resources management

• Development of integrated crop management strategies to address horticultural production demands

• Access to appropriate inputs and resources Capacity building

• Information management and knowledge sharing systems for the horticulture value chain

• Strengthening human capacity through the development of effective extension and education networks

• Rebuild local scientific and technological capacity through innovative degree and non-degree programs

• Strengthen local research capacity with a focus on participatory methodologies

Enabling environment

• Critical evaluation of macroeconomic policies (tariffs, subsidies, trade agreements) that affect the horticultural industry

• Institution of effective intellectual property rights frameworks to protect national rights to genetics resources

• Regulatory mechanisms for protecting natural resources, worker and consumer safety and rights of small producers

Gender Equity

• Actively recruit female farmers, scientists and engineers for participatory research

• Research on gendered dimensions of horticultural production across and within regions

Nutrition and Human Health

• Evaluation of select horticultural crops for their nutritional properties and bioavailability

• Development of appropriate food-based solutions to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies and other health concerns

Horticulture Research Institute Priorities

Genetic resource conservation and development

1-Selection of new improved horticultural varieties of higher yield and superior quality.

2- Evaluation and testing of new varieties of vegetable crops and medicinal plants under Egyptian conditions.

3- Germplasm preservation through:

• Establishment of mother farms of local fruit trees’ strains.

• Mass propagation of superior strains and production of virus- free seedlings.

• Introducing biotechnology methods and training of qualified scientists.

• Identifying fingerprints of horticultural crops.

• Using tissue culture technique for the propagation of non- traditional fruit crops.

4- Production of high yield and quality seeds of vegetable crops to meet the demand of seed companies.

5- Introducing new varieties and germplasm of some horticultural crops.

Sustainable production systems and natural resources management

6- Periodic visits to different locations of horticultural crop farms to identify the constrains to production to overcome them.

Postharvest systems and food safety

7- Conducting researches for studying different factors pre and after harvest factors that affect fruit quality to minimize losses and improve the quality.

Capacity building enabling environment

8- Expanding cultivation and production of high quality woody trees.

9- Developing of different herbarium groups for the Egyptian flora.

10- Survey and evaluation of the distribution and density of the Egyptian flora.

Extension and education

11- Organization of extension workshops and training programs for agriculturists, extensionists and growers.

12- Extension publications for horticultural crops.

13- Coordinating the ties between the scientific research results and the grower, through the dissemination of researches’ findings.

14- Periodic (weekly) scientific seminars in different aspects to discuss the new and modern techniques for the production of horticulture crops through the sharing of different specialist scientists from different universities and research centers.

15- Participation in local and international scientific meetings.

Bibliography

Abd Elmoniem E.M.; M.Z. El-Shinawy; A. F. Abou-Hadid; A.M. Eissa and A.S. EI-Beltagy "Effect of Nitrogen form on lettuce plant grown in hydroponic system." Acta Hort. (434) pp 47-52 (1996).

Abou-Hadid, A.F. and A.S. EI-Beltagy (1991). "Pan evaporation as affected by plastic house micro climate." Acta., Hort., (287) pp. 35-46.

Abou-Hadid, A.F. and A.S. EI-Beltagy (1992). "Water Balance Under Plastic House Conditions in Egypt." Acta., Hort., (303) pp. 61-72.

Abou-Hadid, Professor Dr. Ayman F. Chairman. Department of Horticulture. Faculty of Agriculture. Aim- Shams University. Horticultural research in Egypt

Abou-Hadid Professor Dr. Ayman F. Chairman. Department of Horticulture. Faculty of Agriculture. Aim- Shams University. High Value Agricultural Products Workshop(2006). www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/210990/regional_WANA.p df

EI-Behairy U. A.; A. F. Abou-Hadid; A. EI-Asdoudi And Stan Burrage "Effect of phosphorus application on mineral contents of cucumber grown in NFT." Acta Hort. (434) pp 21-27 (1996).

EI-Shinawy M.Z.; M. A. Medany ; A.F. Abou-Hadid; E.M. Soliman and A.S. EI-Beltagy "g: comparative water use efficiencies of Lettuce plants grown in different production systems." Acta Hort. (434) pp 53-57 (1996).

Eissa. M.M., A.F. Abou-Hadid, A.S. EI-Beltagy and A.A. Omara (1991). "Relationship between class "A" Pan evaporation and water vapor pressure deficit under plastic house conditions." Egypt. J. Hort. 18, (2), pp. 131-139.

Ismail, A.S.; A.m. Eissa and A. F. Abou-hadid "Effect of composted materials on soil chemical properties nutritional status and yield of tomatoes." Acta Hort. (434) pp 139-150 (1996)

Serageldin, I. (2004) "Nurturing and Nourishing the World's Poor: Important Roles for Horticulture in Sustainable Development" Acta Hort, 642, 2004.

USAID (2005), "Global Horticultural Assessment", University of California Davis. USAID Award #EDH-A- 00-04-00006-00

Zayed A., A.F. Abou-Hadid, U.EI-Behairy and A.S. EIBeltagy. "The use of Nutrient Film Technique for the commercial Production of greenhouse tomato in Egypt". (1989).Egypt.J.Hort. 16, (2), 101-110.

Section 4—Animal Agriculture (138, 145)

History of Animal Development in Agriculture

Agriculture started in the Golden Triangle of the Eastern Mediterranean Area where crops were first cultivated. Of the 4,800-mammalian species that exist on the planet today, about a dozen became easily domesticated. Cattle originated around ten to twelve thousand years ago by domestication of the now extinct species Auroch (Diamond, 1997). There were several separate domestications of cattle. One of which went to form the hump cattle found in the Indies, and the other the Bos taurus. Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species. These were Bos taurus, the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; Bos indicus, the zebu; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs.

Genes from both sub-species have contributed to the breeds that we know today. However, selective breeding of cattle to produce the milk and beef breeds that we recognize today only started about 200 years ago. Livestock breeding has progressed very rapidly since then, particularly during the latter part of the Twentieth Century. Animal agriculture is an often forgotten part of world agriculture, despite its scope and significance. Productivity gains will continue to be necessary as global demand for animal protein outpaces productive capacity. Today, livestock production accounts for 30 to 40% of world agriculture production, and the demand for animal protein is increasing. Major productivity gains have been made in United States (US) animal agriculture over the past century. Productivity gains will continue to be necessary as global demand for animal protein outpaces world productive capacity. Genetic technologies, with proper oversight and risk assessment, can provide great benefits for years to come.

Animal agriculture in the developed world has become increasingly science and knowledge based and where this model has been applied there has been enormous success. To deal with the increasing consumer demand for animal protein across the globe, improvements in productivity will not be sufficient. An honest approach to trade issues will also have to be adopted, although such a resolution appears to be less than straightforward. For instance, growthpromoting hormones have become the basis of a serious 229 European Union (EU)-US trade dispute on the basis of alleged safety concerns. Growth promoting hormones for the most part are natural steroids, which provide an increase in growth and a reduction in fat during the finishing stage of cattle production. More than 60% of the beef cattle in the US receive anabolic hormones and more than 90% of the cattle fed in feedlots are implanted with this hormone. A small plastic implant is inserted through a gun into the middle section of the ear. The amount absorbed on a time-release basis provides only slightly higher serum concentrations than might circulate normally in adult cattle. Since these implants are located in the ear, they are easily removed at slaughter, and residual hormone does not enter the food chain. Just about all scientifically reputable toxicological tests for residues in carcasses and food performed on both sides of the Atlantic, have indicated no danger to human health. By contrast the amount of "natural" hormone in foods, such as milk or peas and other vegetables, dwarfs those found in meat from the treated cattle. One would also have to eat hundreds of pounds of beef to consume the equivalent amount of hormone present in a single birth control pill. Yet these naturally occurring steroids have been banned in Europe.

Environmental, economic and social concerns

The loss of biological diversity is a major concern. 50 % of the global production of eggs and 67 % of chicken meat is industrialized. With only two companies providing layer hen genetics and four providing those for broilers, substantial shares of the world’s egg and broiler production depend on a small number of breeding lines which are designed to meet the needs of the industrial production.

Globally, 2/3 of milk is produced by high-output breeds. Dairy cattle breeding is focused on very clear but very few objectives: Milk amount and fat content, weight gain, feed efficiency, all under optimum production conditions. 230 “Consistent selection for these traits has led to a genetic narrowing to an extent that, despite the fact there are more than 3.7 million Holstein cows enrolled in milk recording in the USA, the effective population size of the Holstein breed in the USA for 2004 was only 60 animals. Jerseys and Brown Swiss in the USA have 2004 estimates of effective population size of 31 and 32 animals, respectively.”45 Worldwide only a few thousand bulls are annually tested, and far less included in the reproduction of the millions of heads of industrial dairy and meat cattle. Increasingly, selected mothers of bulls are kept in the companies’ nucleus herds, thereby further reducing diversity. Embryo transfer and cloning technologies are expected to exacerbate the genetic monoculture. While industrial production with the same few breeds is spreading all over the world, local breeds are becoming extinct. Some 8000 breeds have been reported to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), by most of its 190 member governments. More than 100 breeds were reported extinct during the past century. The loss is fast accelerating: 60 breeds were reported extinct during the past five years – a rate of one per month. FAO considers the spread of industrial production (from North to South) as one of the main reasons for the worldwide loss of breeds.

Dairy Production

Remarkable production gains have also occurred in the dairy industry in the United States. There has been a threefold increase in production of milk per cow over the last 55 years. These data do not include the gains that have occurred from using bovine growth hormone (recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST) or Posilac®). The genetics of the animal-the American Holstein-are primarily responsible for these productivity gains. The number of cows has decreased by almost two-thirds, and although large Holsteins individually consume more food and deposit more manure than before, on aggregate, less feed is consumed and less manure produced than 50 years ago. How were such gains achieved? The precursors of the modern milk breeds were gradually derived from farmed cattle that were selected according to their milk production. Improved nutrition and artificial insemination, which began on a large scale only in the 1950s, had an enormous impact on productivity. Other reproductive technologies, such as synchronization of animals for estrus breeding and bull progeny testing, have also made positive contributions. More recently, bovine somatotropin (BST) has given startling gains. As genome projects advance, new information will be used to select animals for desirable traits. With animal cloning techniques there is the possibility of maintaining desirable phenotypes (genotypes) indefinitely.

Production of Other Animal Industries

The gains in pork production are equally as impressive. Selection of lean animals has been emphasized over the last 20 years, although characteristics that producers favor have sometimes been preferred at the expense of consumers. Uniform animals can be more efficiently processed to give a predictable end product.

Other animal industries (e.g., beef cattle) have not been the beneficiaries of similar structured improvements in genetics and management and, hence, have not experienced similar gains in productivity.

An interesting case can be drawn from the US Thoroughbred Industry. The Kentucky Derby is the premiere horse race in the United States. In race times by the year there has been no statistically significant trend towards faster race times over the last 55 years. This result is interesting because it implies one of two explanations. Either there is a very narrow gene base upon which to draw 232 or the thoroughbred industry has relied on arcane methods to improve the quality of the stock. Whatever the reason, it seems unlikely that Secretariat's winning time in 1976 will be beaten any time soon.

Broiler Production

The first known US broiler production facility was founded in the 1920s. The industry has greatly developed since then and, particularly, over the last four decades. It is also now concentrated in just a few states. Table 1 shows the gains in broiler production over time. Broiler weight has increased, market age has decreased, and feed conversion rates have dramatically improved. Almost 50% of feed is now converted to meat. Mortality rates have dropped considerably, in part due to the relatively effective control over Marek's disease, which is caused by a virulent virus. A combination of better veterinary care, nutrition, and, particularly, genetics has led to this remarkable improvement. Even though the basis for genetic improvements has not always been well understood, selection and breeding have been remarkably successful. During the last 50 years, broiler production has improved as measured by the gain in live weight from 3.2 pounds in 1950 to 5.1 pounds in 2000; the market age has dropped from 11 weeks to 7 weeks and the percent morality has dropped from 8% to 5 %.

Technology based Breeding for Genetic

Improvement Genetic improvement of the animal industry was known to be important long before we knew the details of the genome and even longer before we knew how to manipulate the genetics of the animal to achieve the desired quality and quantity of the desired product. Hybrid chicken were first developed in the 1940s by Henry A. Wallace, who was the 33rd Vice President of the United 233 States (1941–45). Henry Wallace applied the same breeding methods to poultry that he had used to develop Pioneer Hi-bred corn. When two different lines are crossbred, productivity of the offspring increases considerably. However, this effect gets lost in the next generation, so that farmers in industrial production will buy breeding material for each generation. Within 10 years, all commercial poultry breeders bred poultry hybrids. Since then, hybridization has become common in pig and in aquaculture, and is currently being developed in cattle.

Genetic engineering and cloning

Genetic engineering has been feasible in poultry since the 1980s, and production of transgenic birds is common in laboratory chicken, and those used for pharmaceutical production in eggs.

Avigenics has been producing genetically altered chickens for the last four years, using a process called Windowing Technology, which introduces genetic material into eggs through a hole or 'window' in their shells. … The Windowing Technology enables the rapid and efficient production of transgenic chickens." The company had received a $ 2 million grant from the United States Department of Commerce for the development of the world's first cloned bird.

Transgenic salmon are also available. It takes half the time for the transgenic salmon to grow to market size. With high growth opportunities, especially in the North-where the meat, dairy and egg markets are saturated-, a concentration process is expected in aquaculture. The number of aquaculture species that can be farmed is rapidly increasing. Salmon, trout, sea bass, sea bream, and turbot, as well as other aquatic species such as shrimp and oysters are being adapted to industrial production with conventional breeding by selection as well as biotechnology. Hybrid salmon and striped bass are established businesses. A two line approach similar to hybridization is recommended as biological mechanism for property protection of shrimp breeding stock. “Pirated” shrimps will have a very low reproduction rate or even die if grown under less favorable conditions. Genetic sterilization of breeding stock is another biological control strategy in discussion.

Cloning is possible in sheep (1997), cattle (1998), pig (2000) and the horse (2006). Its efficiency is still low, and cloned animals may be born with, often fatal, disorders.31 However, cloning is expected to accelerate and intensify the activities of the animal genetics industry, especially with regards to delivering semen of top bulls and boars. In pigs, where artificial insemination does not, like in cattle, enable up to a million offspring, but only around 2000 offspring, cloning might be economically more promising.

European Commission’s Novel Foods Working Group decided on 17 January 2007 that in Europe cloned animals should be considered in the same way as any other novel food. Policy advisors, like members of the US-EC Task Force on Biotechnology Research consider the consumers attitude towards risk and benefit as key to acceptability of genetically modified or cloned animals. Low public acceptability so far is the main reason why major poultry and pig genetics companies claim not to produce GMO animals.

Genome sequencing and marker assisted breeding

By December 2004 the chicken genome was sequenced; the cattle genome followed in 2004/5. A map of the rainbow trout genome is being prepared at a US public research center. Sequencing the pig genome is also the main objective of a EU funded research program, “Sustainable Animal Breeding”, that started in April 2006. It is expected to be completely sequenced by 2007.37 Shortly before, the US Department of Agriculture had approved 10 million 235 USD for the same purpose. A Chinese-Danish group is also working on the issue.

After the chicken genome was sequenced, Aviagen started identifying genetic markers for naturally occurring traits. By screening pedigree lines, single base differences (or single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs), can be identified which will provide “an insight into what makes one chicken different from another”. The leading technology provider in human genomics will provide genotyping using a specially designed panel of over 6,000 SNPs for a large number of chicken DNA samples. The company is expecting “to build on the new breakthroughs in genomics research as it already has in place many of the foundation resources required, such as a good pedigree population structure, high quality performance data, a DNA bank of pedigree bird samples, and an excellent team of R&D specialists in molecular and quantitative genetics.

The Grimaud Group’s subsidiary Hubbard agreed with MetaMorphix to jointly develop genetic markers to predict desired broiler performance traits. Under the agreement, MetaMorphix will be entitled to receive a royalty on revenues generated from the new breeds. "The use of GENIUS - Whole Genome System™ will allow Hubbard to …identify associations of predictive genetic markers with economically important traits, including health, welfare, meat quality, breeder and broiler traits. The use of genetic markers in on-farm progeny testing schemes as in cattle is likely to be led by breeding companies. Marker data is likely to be proprietary and confidential…Such data may well be made available under strict confidentiality arrangements and might not be published. Only the owners of the data will know which animals have been genotyped and what the individual animals’ genotypes are. Therefore, the published breeding values might be calculated using marker data but only data owners will be able to make best use of the information. The use of markers by dairy farmers 236 is unlikely to be widespread until easy to use tools become more freely available and farmers more disposed to using them since the use of marker data at farm level is extremely complex.

Who Supplies the genetic material for animal breeding?

As Scientists working in the field of animal genetics for improvement of the egg or meat production and quality, it is important to remember the major limitations and sources of genetic material. This fact provides opportunities to high quality stock, but it also provides limits and in some cases legal restrictions as to how the genetic material is made available and how it is used.

Only four companies supply the majority of genetics for commercial layer hens, broilers, turkeys and other poultry. The production of hybrid end-products and an associated structure, where multiplication and production are separated steps, allow for a de facto proprietary control over the breeding lines. This has strongly contributed to the extremely high concentration of the industry and the uniformity of genetic makeup. One of the world concerns is about genetic monoculture and the threat of endemic disease. Around two thirds of the world’s broiler and half of the world’s egg production is industrialized.

In cattle, although there is no hybrid breeding yet, and the animals are usually owned by farms less large than the poultry and pig factories, genetic monoculture has reached a similar level. A bull, with the help of artificial insemination, can have a million offspring. The dairy and meat producing communities cultivate their stars and pay high prices for a straw of frozen semen. Not surprisingly, the artificial insemination companies want to clone their best bulls. Cloning so far is not primarily meant for the dinner plates but to complement gene technologies.

Over past decades, breeding objectives focused almost exclusively on performance: yearly egg production, milk yields, milk fat content, and growth rates. Efforts were concentrated on only a handful of breeds of cattle, pig and chicken. Substantial production increases were thus achieved – but only if the feed quality and quantity to make use of the better feed conversion rate is also provided.

With the onset of gene technology, companies who thus far focused on just one species, started to get interested in others. In 2005, the world’s largest pig and cattle breeding companies PIC and ABS were merged into one company, Genus plc, which also incorporates shrimps genetics. The size of livestock breeding companies as such are medium scale, with so far at most 2000 employees, and annual turnovers probably not exceeding 0,5 billion €, where information is available. However, they are usually integrated vertically with feed producing and/or meat processing companies, such as the US meat giant Tyson.

The US company Monsanto, better known for its leadership in genetically modified seed than in livestock genes, may soon dominate gene markets not only with regard to plants but also livestock, thanks to an aggressive policy of acquisition, cooperation and patent policy in cattle and pig genetics.

The rate of loss of the world’s livestock breeds has recently accelerated to one breed per month, while it was around one breed per year on average during the last century. The United Nations are currently raising the issue of the erosion of genetic resources, and the resulting threats for livelihoods and agricultural biodiversity. In Europe, where awareness about the roles and values of breeds has already reached the political level, conservation programs are being implemented. Thus, no more breeds have been lost in some of the European countries. However, what is being lost is food and cultural diversity, and food sovereignty.

Poultry genetics industry: Layer hen, broiler and turkey

Between 1989 and 2006, the number of companies supplying poultry genetics at a global scale was reduced from 10 to 2 in layers and from 11 to 4 in broilers. In turkey breeding, only three companies supply the world markets. Entrepreneurs all over the world wanting to produce eggs or poultry meat on a commercial scale buy genetic material – parent chicken for day-old chicks and hatching eggs– from this handful of globally operating producers. The Dutch company Hendrix provides the genetics for the layer hens of 80% of the world’s commercially produced brown eggs. White eggs are produced to almost 70 % by layer hens originating from a German company, PHW.

Aviagen International Group Inc. (US/UK) is the global market leader in poultry breeding. It develops pedigree lines for the production of broiler chickens and turkeys, and sells parent stock as well as broiler hatching eggs, through own operations across Europe and the USA, and joint ventures in Europe, Latin America, South Africa and Asia.

The Grimaud Group is specialized in avian and rabbit breeding, and related gene technology for pharmaceutical and agro-industry. With the acquisition in 2005 of Hubbard Group, a major broiler breeder formerly with the pharmaceutical corporation Merial, the Grimaud Group doubled its turnover to reach 150 million € and became the second largest player in avian genetics and the leader in specialty segments (coloured chickens, ducklings, guinea fowls, rabbits, pigeons). Grimaud produces some 55 million day old ducklings, 239 including some 1.5 million breeder day olds, 30 million chicken parent day olds (including over a million grandparents), 200,000 guinea fowl parent day olds and 30,000 breeding rabbits. In global multiplication, hatching and sales of commercial day-old ducklings, it holds a 40% market share. Hubbard held some 50% of each of the Russian and Syrian markets, 45% of the Egyptian and 70% of the Pakistani markets. Hubbard claim to be second in the European, Middle Eastern and African market with 25% of that area's parent stock market. When it comes to coloured bird production Hubbard's share is some two third's of the breeder market. Cobb-Vantress is owned by Tyson Foods Inc., the world's largest processor and marketer of chicken and red meat. Tyson has 120,000 employees and a turnover of 26 billion USD. Tyson is the US market leader in poultry, and second in pork meat. Tyson powers America by producing nearly one out of every four pounds of chicken, beef, and pork Americans eat. Tyson is the only company selling all three proteins through all major distribution channels. The company leads domestic chicken production and domestic beef production with a 26 percent share in each market. Tyson holds the number two position in pork production with an 18 percent market share.

Only two internationally operating turkey breeding companies share the market, and both are integrated in breeding companies that have large international market shares of other genetic products. A third large turkey breeder is focused on the US market. Aviagen Turkeys was established in 2005 with the acquisition by Aviagen of British United Turkeys (B.U.T.) from the animal health company Merial. With Nicholas (US) and B.U.T., the European turkey genetics market leader, Aviagen has 350 employees and two turkey breeding brands, and delivers day old turkey poults around the world. Hybrid Turkeys, Canada, is part of Nutreco. Hybrid ranks number two in the 240 turkey genetics market, with a market share of 34% 9. Willmar Poultry Company (WPC) covers almost one third of the US turkey breeding market, including integrated food marketing companies and independent turkey growers. Some notable names include: Sara Lee Foods, Cargill Turkey Production, Farbest Farms, and various contract growers.

Cattle genetics industry

So far, cows for reproduction stayed with dairy farmers who bought high performance bulls semen from Artificial Insemination companies. “The world-wide market for dairy bull semen is increasingly controlled by fewer companies. Even when chance alone leads to a farmer bred and tested bull being of world class merit, the marketing of semen is usually through a major company.

ABS Global, US, is the largest global bovine genetics company. Founded in 1941, ABS became part of Genus plc in 2005. Genus’ turnover is 399.7 million €, and ABS contributes to 49% of it 15. The ABS Global sales volume is around 10 million doses of semen, marketed in more than 70 countries. In comparison, all members of the US National Association of Animal Breeders sell some 31 million doses of semen annually, to 92 countries, at a value of US $48,871,000. The US industry tests some 1,000 Holstein bulls, while ABS tests around 450 Holstein bulls annually16. The market power pays off with an increase average prices of semen in 2005/2006 by 12% in the beef sector and by 10% in dairy. The predicted farm concentration process in Europe is an important target for ABS. The Chinese market, where public awareness programs trigger an increasing dairy consumption, is probably the fastest growing cattle semen market. Since 2006, ABS Global has an exclusive representative in China through Alta Exports International. 241

Table 1: Performance gains of livestock breeding in the USA 1960s to present

Source: Chris Warkup (GenesIs Faraday), John Claxton (EC) and Ronnie Green (USDA), 2006: Report of a Workshop on the Future of Livestock Genomics, 17-18 July 2006, 16th Meeting of the US-EC Task Force on Biotechnology Research, Modified from van der Steen, Prall and Plastow

Aquaculture

In aquaculture, hybrid salmon and striped bass are established businesses. A two line approach similar to hybridization is recommended as biological mechanism for property protection of shrimp breeding stock. “Pirated” shrimps will have a very low reproduction rate or even die if grown under less favorable conditions. Genetic sterilization of breeding stock is another biological control strategy in discussion.

Genetic Selection Summary

Layer hen; Eggs per ton of feed 5000 9000 80 Dairy Cows; Kg milk/cow/lactation 6000 10000 67 Species perfor mance % Δ 1960 2006 Pig-kg lean meat /ton feed 85 170 100 Broiler chicken; days to reach 2 kg 100 40 60 242 Clearly, the gains from genetic selection and improvement are important and in a world with a rapidly expanding population, the benefits will be obvious and will tend to be dominant. It is equally clear that there are real concerns. One is genetic diversity. The corn disaster of the 1970’s is an example that should never be forgotten.

As Egypt looks for opportunities to expand its animal productivity and marketing opportunities in Europe, it will need to look at the pluses and minuses carefully, but wisely. The need for decisions based on scientific knowledge and social issues is further evidence that the quality of research in Egypt is one of the most important factors in the country’s future.

The material in this section taken from Genetic Resources of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, to be held 7 September 2007 in Interlaken, Switzerland

Summary of Animal research in Egypt

The following list represents the research priorities of the animal development and improvement effort in Egypt. The research will be carried out in the four institutes that support animal agriculture. A continuous review of animal development and concerns in the United States and WANA countries will provide the research leaders with one example to use in considering the appropriateness of the Egyptian priorities.

1-Increasing the productive and reproductive efficiency of Egyptian buffalo by pursuing an environmental and genetic improvement program and providing selected genetically superior buffalo bulls or their semen to private sector farmers, small holders and all organizations dealing with water buffalo breeding.

2- Improving the productivity of endogenous cattle by crossing with high productive exotic breeds using artificial insemination to produce crossbred strains adapted to small farmer conditions.

3- Introducing embryo transfer technology as a rapid tool for genetic improvement.

4- Increasing the twinning rate of local sheep by crossing with prolific temperate genotypes from exotic breeds.

5- Improving the productive performance of local goats and determining genetic measurements that can be used in selection of local breeds.

6- Producing local and developed strains of poultry and rabbits adapted to the local environmental conditions.

7- Expanding the utilization of agricultural by-products in animal feed to reduce feed cost and reduce environmental pollution.

8- Evaluating nutrient requirements, feedstuffs, and feed additives for livestock and poultry.

9- Evaluating the properties and quality of milk and dairy products.

10- Establishing a department of Biotechnology, which includes the activities of artificial insemination in small and large ruminants, embryo transfer, in-vitro fertilization, bovine blood typing and DNA sequencing.

11- The Institute has executed ambitious programs in 9 governorates to develop animal production using research packages of artificial insemination, good nutrition, optimizing milk yield and encouraging processing of dairy products through the Food Sector Development Program (FSDP). Also, through FSDP, the Institute has established 4 technical offices in its research stations to provide technical advice in all animal production disciplines.

12- Establishing a breeder service unit, which provides services of herd recording, feed and milk analyses and mastitis detection for the private sector projects and small farmers.

13- Establishing the elite herd of buffalo to produce genetically superior bulls and disseminating them among small breeders and scientific institutions to improve the genetic characteristics of buffalo.

14- The Institute has founded research station for camel research in Marsa Matrouh and poultry research station in 244 El-Sabahia, Alexandria. An International Poultry Training Center is being established in the same station.

Animal Health Research Institute

The Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI) was originally established in 1904 as the Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology in Giza. Its main responsibilities were the production of limited amounts of hemorrhagic septicemia and fowl cholera vaccines, in addition to examining pathological samples received from different districts. In 1950, it became the General Directorate of Veterinary Research Laboratories consisting of three major laboratories for research and diagnosis of animal and poultry diseases, animal reproduction, and serum and vaccine production.

With further development, it was necessary to augment the General Directorate of Veterinary Research Laboratories to meet the growing needs of private and governmental farms. The augmentation took place in 1983 when ARC was formulated. The three laboratories within the General Directorate of Veterinary Research Laboratories were separated and evolved into three ARC research institutes: Animal Health, Animal Reproduction, and Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Production.

The institute continually develops and promotes the quality of its applied research based on issues relating to the preservation of animal resources and the protection of man from animal-transmitted diseases. Basic and applied research is directed to the diagnosis of animal, poultry and fish endemic and exotic diseases.

Animal Production Research Institute

The Animal Production Research Institute (APRI) dates back to 1908 when an independent Animal Breeding Section was formed. Its responsibilities were limited to 245 applied research and activities related to buffalo, cattle and equine breeding. Since 1921, it has been affiliated with the Ministry of Agriculture as a branch for animal breeding. In 1939, the branch was transformed into the Department of Animal and Poultry Breeding, and then into the Department of Animal Production in 1944. In 1952, it was converted into the General Department of Animal Production, , and in 1971, when the ARC was formed, APRI became one of its research institutes.

By engaging in research and extension activities, APRI aims to accomplish a number of objectives, consisting mainly of increasing production, enhancing genetic traits, upgrading the quality of local, cross and exotic breeds of animals, poultry and rabbits, reducing the cost and improving the quality of dairy products and animal feeds and evaluating the properties and quality of milk and dairy products.

Animal Reproduction Research Institute

The Animal Reproduction Research Institute dates back to 1968 when the first center for bull investigation in Egypt was established. Its main responsibilities were the examination of bulls used for artificial insemination or natural breeding purposes, in addition to examining samples received from districts throughout Egypt for diagnostic purposes. Earlier experimental methods brought artificial insemination closer to scientific application in 1935. In 1959, a veterinary training center was inaugurated, and in 1960, the first artificial insemination center in Egypt was established within the Ministry of Agriculture. A reproductive diseases laboratory diagnosis program was initiated in 1962within a Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) project for the evaluation of emerging exotic reproductive diseases. The bull investigation center that was formed in 1968 was upgraded, developing its structure and facilities in order to meet the growing demands for establishing private and governmental farms 246 for scientific research concerning the reproductivity of animals. The center joined the General Authority for Agricultural Research (which later became the ARC) as part of the Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI) it became independent in 1983,When the ARC was formed under the name of the Animal Reproduction Research Institute (ARRI)

The goal of ARRI is to raise the reproductive efficiency of farm animals through organized scientific laboratory and field studies. Special consideration is directed towards investigating fertility problems, combating reproductive diseases, applying artificial insemination, conducting research on the freezability of semen, enhancing different aspects of the embryo transfer technique, investigating biology of reproduction issues, and developing programs for rearing calves and care of the udder.

Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute

The Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, formerly called the Veterinary Serum Laboratory, is one of the oldest in the Middle East and Africa. It was established in 1903 and affiliated with the Ministry of Health until 1914 when it became part of the Veterinary Medicine Department within the Ministry of Agriculture. Earlier responsibilities were limited to producing virulent blood and antiserum, previously imported, for protecting cattle against Rinderpest (cattle plague). The laboratory's mission continued to grow.

In 1928, research continued to develop more sera and vaccines necessary for protecting animal resources. In 1934, Rinderpest vaccine was produced. The severe epizootic outbreak of African Horse Sickness in 1944 resulted in a large scale vaccine production program. The following period saw considerable laboratory expansion and new building construction. New vaccines such as Newcastle, Rinderpest tissue culture, Foot and Mouth 247 disease, and Rift Valley Fever vaccines were produced in 1948, 1963, 1973, and 1978, respectively.

The Veterinary Serum Laboratory became an independent institute, affiliated with the ARC, in 1983 and renamed the Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute (VSVRI). The institute has gained international recognition and has been exporting vaccines to Arab, African, and Asian countries since 1980.

VSVRI carries out its role of protecting animals and poultry against contagious and infectious diseases through the production of various vaccines, specific antiserum, and diagnostic reagents. It conducts research associated with the development of bacterial and viral vaccines, diagnostic products, and antiserum to immunize farm animals, poultry, and pet animals against outbreaks of infectious diseases prevalent in Egypt or introduced through importation. The institute also produces abundant amounts of veterinary biological products for mass vaccination of the animal and poultry populations. VSVRI is also establishing a central quality control lab to evaluate veterinary biological products.

References

Egyptian Agricultural Research Center http://www.claes.sci.eg/arc/arc.htm

Churchill Downs Inc. (2001). Kentucky Derby history: 125 Years, race statistics. Louisville, KY:

Churchill Downs Inc. Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.churchilldowns.com/kderbylhistory/racestats/in dex.html.

Diamond, J. (1997). Guns, germs and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Koizumi, K., Teich, A.H., Nelson, S.D., Padron Carney, 1. (1998). Congressional action on research and development in the FY 1999 budget (AAAS Publication # 98-11S). Washington, DC:

AAAS. Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.aaas.org/spp/dspp/rd/rdwwwpg.htm.

Majeskie, 1.L. (1996). National cooperative dairy herd improvement (Fact Sheet K-7). Columbus, OH: National Dairy Herd Improvement Association, Inc.

Pinstrup-Andersen, A. and Pandy-Lorch, R. (1999). Securing and sustaining adequate food production for the third millennium. In World Food Security and Sustainability: The Impacts of Biotechnology and Industrial Consolidation (NABC Report 11), pp. 27-48. Ithaca, NY: National Agricultural Biotechnology Council.

Section 5--Genetic Engineering Research Institute

It is obvious from the discussions about Biotech Cotton and the exceptional gains in the productivity of food animals that the research carried out in the Genetic Engineering Research Institute is a key and critical part of the future of plant and animal research in Agriculture. Egypt is fortunate in having one of the best centers of GE research in the Mediterranean region. Much of the future growth and improvement of pant and animal food production will depend on the accomplishments of this Institute.

It is important to recognize that such research is not inexpensive and hence to be effective and productive, it will need the best financial and political support possible. Political support because there are so many organizations that delight in doubting the safety and efficacy of this scientific process. This is nothing new. Such attitudes have been present with most of the major scientific developments in the world. These questions must be heard and answered, but they must not be used to frighten and disadvantage the public without solid data. The following research priorities are designed to meet the needed goals of Egyptian agriculture:

1- The isolation and cloning of Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) endotoxin genes from Bt isolates collected from different Egyptian habitats that are effective against different orders of insects.

2- Transgenic potato lines expressing Bt toxin genes have been developed and evaluated for potato tuber moth (PTM) resistance.

3- Within the Bt research domain, a biocontrol agent AGERIN was formulated and commercialized through a private company. The product controls Lepidoptran insects infesting many crops.

4- Plant viruses infect economic horticultural crops in Egypt causing devastating losses. Therefore, AGERI targeted major commodities and applied genetic engineering technologies to successfully develop potato lines resistant to potato virus X (PVX), potato virus Y (PVY) and potato leaf roll virus (PLRV); melon and squash lines resistant to zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) in addition to tomato lines resistant to the whitefly transmitted Geminivirus, tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV).

5- Molecular Markers, restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs), amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs), and microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) have been used to study genetic variability and to fingerprint economically important crops such as cotton, maize, tomato, date palm and rapeseed.

The ongoing research projects undertaken at AGERI are focused on problems facing Egyptian agriculture. The immediate objectives are to utilize cellular and molecular biology methodologies to develop and deliver transgenic 250 elite cultivars resistant to biotic and a biotic stresses and have the potential to cause a significant impact on crop productivity, the economy and the environment.

1- Resistance to Insects And Stress Tolerance in Egyptian Cotton: Millions of dollars are spent annually on the purchase of imported pesticides to combat insect pests in cotton growing areas. The production of Transgenic cotton plants (Gossypium barbadense L.) expressing insecticidal toxin gene (Bt) is one of the main targets of AGERI. Different Bt genes expressing toxicity against Lepidoptran, Coleopteran and Dipteran insects have been isolated and cloned. Modification of specific Bt genes for maximum expression of the toxic protein in cotton plants is currently underway in addition to optimization of the regeneration and transformation system. Identification, mapping and cloning of genes encoding stress tolerance is another activity aiming at transferring these genes into superior genotypes to develop heat tolerant and salt tolerant cotton lines.

2- Disease Resistance in Tomato: Whitefly transmitted geminiviruses, specifically tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), have been identified as the most devastating plant viruses infecting tomato in Egypt. Different gene construct strategies are being used in transforming tomato cultivars to produce transgenic tomato resistant to (TYLCV). Molecular diagnostic methods have been developed to detect geminiviruses infection in tomato.

3- Development Of Potato Varieties Resistant To Virus Diseases And Insects: Development of Transgenic potato lines resistant to different virus diseases predominant in Egypt is probably the most effective means in achieving sustainable potato production. The coat protein strategy has been adopted to produce resistance to potato virus Y and replicas gene for potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) the transgenic lines are in the field testing stage. 251 Transgenic potato lines were developed with a Bt endotoxin gene (cry V or cry IAC) incorporated in the genome via Agrobacterium mediated transformation. Greenhouse and field evaluation of these lines was carried out under artificial and natural infestation with potato tuber moth (PTM). Highly resistant lines were selected for future commercialization.

4- Development Of Virus Resistance in Cucurbit Crops: Plant viral diseases are usually very destructive and difficult to control. The yield and quality of Egyptian melon and squash are drastically by zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV). Therefore, one of the objectives at AGERI was to introduce resistance to ZYMV into the Egyptian top market cucurbit cultivars. The coat protein gene of ZYMV was introduced in the squash variety Escandarany and the melon variety Ananas El-Dokki, Field testing and selection of ZYMV resistant lines was carried out. All biocontainment greenhouse and field evaluations were submitted to the National Biosafety Committee (NBC) for approval.

5- Development of Resistance Stem Borers in Maize: Maize field in Egypt are infested with three species of stem borers, of which Sesamia cretica is the most damaging.

The introduction of genetically modified maize plants with insect resistance (Bt toxin gene) will be of great value not only in maximizing yield, but also in reducing the use of hazardous chemical pesticides. Elite maize inbred lines have been screened for their regeneration capacity using two systems; immature embryo culture and multiple shoot meristems. Studies were carried out to increase regeneration efficiency in the selected lines with optimization of the transformation system using the biolistic gun. A cassette containing a novel Bt endotoxin 252 gene isolated from an Egyptian Bt isolate is being constructed to transform these lines.

6- Genome Mapping Of Economically Important Crops: This activity involves the development of comprehensive genetic maps for economically important crops such as maize, tomato, cotton, date palm and rapeseed. The importance of a genetic map is that it provides molecular markers linked to agronomically important traits which facilitate marker-assisted selection in crop improvement programs thereby decreasing the time required for the introgression of desirable genes into elite genetic backgrounds and also for map based cloning. DNA fingerprinting of elite germplasm is also conducted for practical plant breeding purposes, mainly cultivar identification, estimation of genetic relatedness, monitoring seed purity and plant propriety rights protection.

7- Development Of Transgenic Wheat With Improved Tolerance To Environmental Stresses: Research at AGERI aims at cloning and introducing genes that confer tolerance to drought and salinity into wheat varieties. Currently, transgenic lines are being evaluated in the bio containment greenhouse and in field trials under rain fed conditions.

Danforth Foundation support for AGERI

Only three percent of Egypt's land area can sustain productive farming. Due to the limited amount of arable land, Egyptian scientists continue to seek new and innovative ways to improve agriculture in their country. Ancient Egyptian farmers, like today's modem farmers, are known for employing agricultural techniques such as dense cultivation, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers to secure some of the highest crop yields in the world. In their continuing efforts to improve their agriculture, scientists at the Agricultural Genetic Engineering Research Institute (AGERI) in Cairo employ modem biotechnology to develop new ways to improve agricultural production.

AGERI is the primary institute responsible for managing agricultural genetic engineering research in Egypt. The Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and AGERI have recently initiated several research projects that employ : biotechnology to improve Egyptian agriculture.

In Egypt, the Tomato yellow leaf curl virus causes about 65 percent yield losses in tomato annually. In a new research collaboration, Dr. Claude Fauquet (Danforth Center) and Dr. Naglaa Abdallah (AGERI) are investigating new ways to control the spread of the virus by developing tomato plants that will resist the spread of infection by whiteflies.

As recently as the 2003 and 2004 growing seasons, Egypt's potato crop was ravished by severe epidemics of Late Blight Disease. Potatoes are the second most important vegetable crop in Egypt in terms of crop value and total production. The Danforth Center's Dr.Karel Schubert has joined forces with AGERI's Dr. Taymour Nasr Ed-Din to produce a genetically modified potato that is resistant to blight disease. Late Blight Disease was responsible for the well-known Irish potato famine that killed over 1 million people in Ireland from 1845-1850. It has been estimated that blight resistant potatoes could save Egyptian farmers almost $1 million annually by reducing the use of pesticides and may increase potato production by more than 50 thousand tons.

In 2004, Egypt produced more than 16 million metric tons of sugarcane. Sugarcane Pokkah Boeng Disease is a severe disease caused by a fungal pathogen. Unfortunately for Egyptian farmers, chemical fungicides do not effectively control this disease. To assist these farmers, Danforth Center's Dr. Dilip Shah and AGERI's Dr. Naglaa Abdallah are working to develop genetically-modified sugarcane with enhanced resistance to Pokkah Boeng Disease.

Recently, Mr. Lawrence Kent, director of the Danforth Center's International Programs, visited Egypt and provided Dr. Abdallah with materials from Dr. Shah's laboratory. "The three collaborative research projects between Danforth Center and AGERI scientists provide great promise to improve agriculture in Egypt," Mr. Kent said. "We hope that these new technologies will eventually benefit Egyptian farmers."

Since its establishment in 1989, Egypt's Agricultural Genetic Engineering Research Institute has received support from the United States Agency for International Development. A team recently visited Egypt with a team of experts from the University of Illinois - Urbana Champaign to develop a strategy to ensure AGERI's long-term sustainability.

Section 6-- Agriculture Economics Research Institute

The Agricultural Economics Research Institute (AERI) was established in 1943 as the Agricultural Economics Department. In 1949, it became the Agricultural Economics and Legislation Department and consisted of agricultural foreign relations, statistics, agricultural economics, and legislation divisions. In 1958, it became a research department for agricultural economics and statistics. With the increasing demand for the Ministry of Agriculture's services during the 1960s, the department was organized into eight divisions. When the ARC was established in 1971, AERI became one of its first institutes responsible, together with other institutes, to improve the technologies and services available to Egyptian agriculture through research and extension. The main objective of AERI is to conduct research in the fields of agricultural economics and statistics for the purpose of developing production and income within the framework of the national agricultural policy.

Specific goals include:

• Economic analysis of different Egyptian agricultural commodities. • Improving statistical data collection and analysis, and establishing accurate agricultural databases

• Preparing the economic and statistical information needed by decision makers. In addition to conducting economic and statistical studies in order to find solutions to several economic problems & issues, this institute focuses on the following:

• Highlighting the marketing methods of agricultural commodities that could maximize profits for agricultural produces, high quality of agricultural crop, and improving export of agricultural commodities.

• Studying the current financial and agricultural credit policies and suggesting how to improve it in context of the free market mechanism.

• Conducting rural community research studies to help improve standard of living for rural people.

• Studying economics of agricultural labor and mechanization. • Studying the current situation and outlook of agricultural commodities and agricultural inputs.

• Developing and improving sample techniques in order to obtain reliable and timely agricultural statistical estimates.

Conduct Economical and Statistical Studies Covering the following Topics

• Study the effect of the World Trade Organization on the Egyptian agricultural sector.

• Outlook of cooperation between Egypt and Arab groups in the field of animal production.

• Investigation studies about the main agricultural exports and import commodities of COMESA with concentration on Egypt.

Section 7-- Food Technology Research Institute Goals

• Improving quality of food products to cope with the international measures needed for exportation.

• Improving processing procedures in the field of bread and bakery products, dairy products, fish and meat products as well as processed horticultural products.

• Continuing the evaluation and monitoring of food consumption pattern to cover the entire country.

• Finding new sources for food and reducing food losses and finding new methods to reduce environmental pollution.

• Recycling of farm, factory and slaughter- house wastes in food products either by raising its added value or in ensuring safe disposal.

• Introducing simple and new applicable methods in food quality control.

• Technologies transfer to users and strengthening the relationship between researchers and food processors.

• Conducting feasibility studies for investors in food processing.

• Conducting training and extension programs for smallscale food projects.

• Encouraging overseas training programs specially those held in the developed countries about new trends in the field of specialization.

• Focusing on training programs that aim to develop women in rural society.

Conclusions

Financial Support for Egyptian Research

For the past 30 plus years, the scientific and technical developments in Egypt has been supported by USAID, World Bank, IMF, FAO, ACDI/VOCA, Ford Foundation, Rockfeller Foundation, IFAD, GTZ, European Agencies, numerous foundations, the Egyptian Government and others I am sorry to have left off the list.

Recently the European Council has made a major commitment to help Egypt implement the European Neighborhood Policy which will have financial value as well as value in dealing with international legal matters.

Europe and Egypt to cooperate on science plan

[CAIRO] Egypt’s EU-Egypt Association Council has agreed to a series of scientific and technological reforms under a European Union (EU) initiative to foster deeper political and economic harmony with its neighbors.

The reforms were developed as part of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP).

The European Commission has approved around US$733 million to help Egypt implement the ENP reforms from 2007–2010, although sources in Egypt told SciDevNet that the allocation for the science and technology reforms has not yet been decided.

Planned activities include development of a 'patent culture' in technology parks and universities, which will be organized by intellectual property offices, as well as the introduction of a doctoral level program in intellectual property law.

Egyptian scientists' access to European scientific databases and their participation in European research groups and international scientific debates and conferences will be improved.

In a bid to promote technology-based industry, the reforms call for better interaction mechanisms between research and industry, and the creation of regional 'technopoles' — towns with teaching and research facilities which can support the development of hi-tech industries.

In addition, scholarships will be offered for Egyptian students to attend European universities, broader links between EU and Egyptian scientific institutions will be established, contacts between academics will be improved and Egypt will be eligible for ENP funds to encourage cross-border co-operation and sustainable development.

Egypt will also increase its collaboration with the EU in common energy strategies, nuclear safety, information technology, education, agriculture and fisheries, and environmental issues, such cleaning up pollution in the Mediterranean.

The council established a new expert-level sub-committee to make sure that the reforms are implemented and take stock of progress made.

Hassan Moawad Abdel Al, former president of Alexandria's Mubarak City for Scientific Research and Technology Applications, told SciDev.Net that the reforms would not only build Egypt's scientific capacity, but also strengthen science capabilities in other Arab and African countries.

Critical Emerging Issues

We are told repeatedly that the crisis in the World food supply is not one of production but of distribution and that the solution is political. Nevertheless, even if structural solutions improve food distribution, world population will soar from 6 billion to 10 billion, or thereabouts, by 2050. This increase in population will necessitate a vast increase in the amount of food produced. At the same time the area of useful agricultural land is shrinking and, in many cases, deteriorating in quality. As a result of this intensity of farming, natural resource management will have to be improved.

Investment in Agricultural Research

To maintain the historical gains in animal productivity, scientific knowledge through research must continue to advance. Relevant investment in agricultural research is 260 needed in both Europe and in the United States to maintain food production and to achieve agricultural sustainability. Yet, it is unclear that such investments are possible within the existing political environment.

Before World War II, 40% of the US federal research dollars went into agriculture. The situation has changed markedly since then. The USDA's portion is now only 4%. Of this approximately $1.8 billion, only a small fraction, less than $150 million, is directed towards long-term, peerreviewed, competitive research. The result is that most young researches are increasingly focusing their attention away from agriculture and toward the health-related research activities. Yet it is possible to make a strong case that agriculture is contributing greatly to the health of the US and global population, and that research is vital if agriculture is to continue to meet food needs.

Biotechnology

Emerging technologies must also be nurtured and employed effectively. Genetically modified foods are currently at a stage where they could flounder or bring great benefit. Their existence is threatened as the result of perceived but, in many cases, unfounded safety considerations and the ensuing negative public response. Jarrod Diamond, in his book, Guns, Germs and Steel describes how the Japanese developed a sophisticated firearms industry in the sixteenth century, only to abandon it for 300 years because it conflicted with Samurai tradition. The development of technologies can be slowed down and even lost in an incompatible social context. Genetic technologies have a bright future in agriculture as well as in medicine. With proper oversight and risk assessment they can provide great benefit in the difficult times ahead.

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